Medieval Copper-alloy Mace-heads from England, Scotland and Wales Adam Daubney Copper-alloy knopped mace-heads are relatively uncommon finds in England, Wales and Scotland. This paper concerns the 29 examples known to the author at the time of writing (see catalogue): 16 of which were previously listed by Geake (2005: 334-37). Thirteen of these have been recorded through the Portable Antiquities Scheme (PAS). Three further ones have been discovered through excavation, which may be residual finds. No.28 from Perth, Perthshire, was found in the floor of a c.14thcentury bakery (Holdsworth 1987), No. 25, from Dryslwyn Castle, Carmarthenshire, was found deep within the fill of a latrine pit dated to 1250-60 (Jessop, forthcoming) and No. 11 came from a waterfront excavation in the City of London (there is no full publication of the site sequence). It is perhaps correct to stress that some degree of caution needs to be exercised when using the term ‘mace-head’, as the word has military, political and ecclesiastical connotations. It is the writer’s opinion that although many of the copper-alloy knopped varieties were used in combat, some of these are likely to have had an ecclesiastical function. The distinction between the two classes is not clear at present and it is possible that some maces had dual purposes. Iron knopped maces, known from Britain and the continent are thought to have been used exclusively in combat. A detailed study of the iron examples is beyond the scope of this paper. Fig. 1. Mace-head a) without shaft (No. 2); height 24mm (drawing D. Watt) and b) with shaft (No. 20); height 52mm. The distribution of the mace-heads is very much centred on the east of England, with Lincolnshire having produced a relatively large quantity. The distribution map (Fig. 2) also shows that a significant number of maces are found in coastal counties, at inlet locations and along major waterways. Although the dataset is few in number and obvious biases can be thought of, it seems likely that this distribution is representative. Knopped mace-heads are better known in Ireland, Scandinavia, and continental north-eastern Europe, where many examples are decorated with moulded motifs, openwork shafts and in some cases silvering (Fig. 3). The Irish and European knopped copper-alloy mace-heads have been the focus of attention of a number of scholars, in particular Halpin (1988: 168-200) and Kirpichnikov (1966: 47-57). According to Kirpichnikov, copper-alloy knopped mace-heads developed in north eastern Europe, perhaps centred on Kiev in the 9th century. The earliest forms of mace found in the Baltic area are undecorated and have no integral shaft. It seems that decorated examples did not appear until the 12th century. The peak in usage occurs between the 11th and 14th centuries on the continent, with broad 13th- and 14th- century dating for those from the British Isles. The knopped mace-head is simply a cast, hollow cylinder of copper alloy, sometimes leaded,{1} and usually with three rows of pyramidal or half-pyramidal knops. The only clear divisions within the knopped group are those with integral shafts and those without (Fig.1). Both varieties were mounted on long wooden staves, as evidenced by many examples retaining wood within their sockets. Those with integral shafts were secured by an iron nail through a small hole at the bottom of the socket, and those without may well have been secured by an iron nail through the top of the socket. Iron corrosion has been noted around the socket on a number of mace-heads, notably No. 6 from Fiskerton, Lincolnshire. Indeed, one unprovenanced iron knopped mace-head (seen by the author on the internet) is known with an iron nail still through the socket. 194 Medieval Copper-alloy Mace-heads from England, Scotland and Wales _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Fig. 2: Distribution of copper-alloy mace-heads in Great Britain and Ireland (Irish finds cf. Halpin 1988: 192, fig. 11). Fig. 3: Decorated copper-alloy mace-heads from a) the Baltic and b) Denmark; heights 135mm and 79mm (Adam Daubney). Barshalder cemetery contained small, ornate axes that were interpreted as being ceremonial rather than martial, symbolically linking the owner to armed conflict. This interpretation is supported by the evidence from one grave where the length of the haft seems to have been too long for practical use (ibid.: 65). The maces from the Barshalder cemetery were found at the feet of the deceased, with the hafts originally orientated towards their heads (ibid.: 65 and 67). Rundkvist (2003: 67) suggested that because the mace-heads were set further from the head of the deceased than the axes, the hafts of the former may have been longer. This is not in keeping The writer knows of no knopped mace-heads from France or southern Europe; instead, these areas tend to produce iron-flanged mace-heads, which are firmly at home in a military context. There are notable concentrations of early decorative and plain knopped mace-heads in Scandinavia, in particular Denmark and Gotland, Sweden. Two maces were found in probable Christian graves dated to c. 1000-1100 AD at a cemetery site in Barshalder, Gotland (Rundkvist 2003: 67 - graves nos. Bhr 1962:14:1 and Bhr 1963:01), and a third mace is documented from a grave at Hemse Annexhemman, also on Gotland (ibid.: 67). Other burials within the 195 Adam Daubney _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ the Eastern Church. Perhaps the same can also be suggested for the British maces. with contemporary illustrations of maces used in battle, which were mounted on short staves. A small mace-head on a long shaft does not readily lend itself to combat, whether used for fighting on foot or on horseback. The absence of other components within the graves shows that there were no metal bindings, studs or other decorative elements on the shafts. In the 11th and 12th centuries religion on Gotland was significantly influenced by the eastern Christianity of Russia (Lagerlöf 1999). Staecker (1997: 77-81) has suggested that the early Christian graves containing jewellery and dress fittings found in churchyards on the island and at Leksand in Dalecarlia, and even those with pottery at Grodby on Bornholm (Denmark), might be seen as indicators of historically undocumented missionary work on the part of Some of the Scandinavian mace-heads are extremely elaborate and were clearly not intended to be employed in physical warfare. A few have silver decoration and others are decoratively moulded, occasionally as openwork. One in Finland shows a figure, possibly a saint, holding a book that is probably a bible, standing beneath an arch which may represent a church or monastery (Fig. 4), which suggests an ecclesiastical association. Further possible evidence for the knopped mace being an item employed in spiritual, rather than physical warfare is seen in a stone sculpture of a figure who holds one in his right hand at the 12th- or 13th-century church at Horsne, Gotland (Fig. 5). Fig. 4: Mace-head from Finland with moulded arcade and (possible) praying figure (National Museum of Finland). Fig. 5: Figure holding mace at Horsne church, Gotland (Adam Daubney). 196 Medieval Copper-alloy Mace-heads from England, Scotland and Wales _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Fig. 6. Openwork mace-head from Athenry, Galway. Height 101mm (Andrew Halpin). The movement of mace-heads (or more accurately those who were carrying them) turns to Ireland, which has produced a sizeable collection of the knopped variety. In his detailed study Halpin (1988) lists 19 examples. Many of these are decorative, including one from Athenry, Galway, with an openwork socket formed of four pillars (ibid.: 182, fig. 1 and pls. 2 and 3; Fig. 6), which brings to mind the arch on the Finnish example. The openwork socket and obvious high quality suggest non-military useage for this particular item. On the other hand, Halpin (ibid.: 174) notes that many of the Irish maces have damaged, down-turned prongs that could well be the result of service in battle. Similar traits are also seen on the English, Scottish and Welsh maces, particularly on the most prominent upper and middle rows of prongs. Although damage to the upper prongs could have been caused by general wear, damage to the middle row implies that the maces were swung horizontally, which in turn suggests aggressive intent. copper (Holdsworth 1987: 125, no. 29), however in the light of the silver on continental examples it is more likely to represent surface coating. The findspots of maces found at Soutra, Midlothian and Perth, Perthshire maces (Nos. 26 and 28) may also hint at ecclesiastical associations. The Perth mace-head was discovered at a location known as ‘Kirk Close’ (Church Close) and Soutra was the site of a large and important hospice founded in 1164 by King Malcolm IV, which includes an Augustinian church (the site lies just off Dere Street, which remained the only major highway between England and the north until the 18th century and it was the principal pilgrim route to St Andrews across the Lammermuir Hills.{2} It seems appropriate to make a tentative link between the undecorated and decorated knopped mace-head and a group of smaller, openwork copper-alloy staff fittings which are gradually becoming better known in England (Fig. 7). These hollow fittings were originally described as sword pommels (Ward Perkins 1940: 23, fig. 2, nos. 1 and 2) but they have more recently been re-identified as cross-staff bases by Simon Bailey (1994: 171-75). Ten of these fittings have been recorded through the PAS to date. {2} It may be significant that England and Wales are yet to produce a decorated copper-alloy knopped mace-head. Scotland has some: No. 27 from Millsteads Farm, Canonbie, Dumfries and Galloway is decorated with a moulded fleur-de-lis on the shaft and No. 28 from Perth, Perthshire has traces of corroded silver in some areas. This was originally thought to be contamination of the 197 Adam Daubney _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Fig. 7: Cross-staff fitting from Sharnbrook, Bedfordshire (BH-B64636); height: 45mm (Garth Denning). They are of two main types: the first group is discoid and the second globular. Both groups are socketed and were secured to a wooden staff by means of a small nail at the top of the socket. from the continent, it would appear that, despite the similarities, the openwork fittings are English artefacts that developed independently from, and indeed earlier than the knopped mace-head. Although these cross-staff fittings are smaller in size, many of them are strikingly similar in basic forrn to the undecorated knopped mace-heads, often including three rows of globular knops similar to the arrangement of pyramidal and half-pyramidal knops seen on undecorated British mace-heads. If the openwork cross-staff fittings did indeed follow the form of undecorated mace-heads, then the latter must be earlier in date or at least contemporary with the openwork fittings. This does, however, not appear to be the trend currently seen in the excavated examples. Two cross-staff fittings excavated at Dublin and Canterbury, Kent were dated to the mid- and late-11th century respectively (ibid.: 171-75), whereas the two stratified knopped mace-heads noted above are dated to the mid 13th century. The undecorated mace-heads from Britain relate to Kirpichnikov’s Group III and IV from the Baltic region, which he dates between the 12th century and the first half of the 13th century (1966: 49). From this evidence and also the lack of openwork fittings The date at which the knopped copper-alloy mace-heads entered England is still very much open to debate and awaits new finds with reliable close dating. At present it seems likely to have been in the later 12th century at the earliest. Some examples may be local products based on Scandinavian or north-eastern European types. It is clear that the majority of copper-alloy knopped mace-heads were manufactured as weapons of war, particularly larger ones that are heavily leaded and have knops that have fractured or become down-turned through the application of considerable force. The available evidence does point to some of them having a non-martial function, in which case they may have been used as ecclesiastical staff terminals. If the knopped mace-head evolved quickly from a weapon into an object employed as a ceremonial or ecclesiastical staff fitting, then it might be possible to see remnants of 12th- and 13th-century maces in later ecclesiastical material. Some 15th-century candlesticks and processional crosses have knopped collars that are 198 Medieval Copper-alloy Mace-heads from England, Scotland and Wales _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ remarkably similar to the mace-heads, with common details such as three rows of pyramidal knops and integral shafts extending below but not at the tops, along with various other decorative elements (Oman 1962: 195, pls. 15-16 and 18). The staffs on the 12th- and13th-century maces are however unlikely to have continued up beyond the head, as the knops on later processional crosses did. As noted above, iron corrosion on several sockets indicates the use of nails as a method of securing the heads to the shafts, and some of the mace-heads have closed tops, particularly Danish examples. Finally the mace-heads from the graves in Gotland indicate that they formed the terminal for the shaft. This evidence does not necessarily go against the knops on processional cross developing from them. The mace-like knopped collars on the processional crosses may well point back down the evolutionary line of metalwork motifs, ultimately to the mace-head. Depending on the closeness of this connection, the maces are of interest not only to finds specialists, but potentially to those who study the movement of missionaries and the spread of the gospel throughout medieval Europe as well. Catalogue of copper-alloy knopped mace-heads from England, Wales and Scotland: No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Findspot Wicken, Cambridgeshire. Stroud, Gloucestershire. Ramsgate, Kent. Canterbury, Kent. Edlington, Lincolnshire. Fiskerton, Lincolnshire. North Kelsey, Lincolnshire. Sleaford area, Lincolnshire. Thonock, Lincolnshire. probably Lincolnshire. 78 Upper Thames Street, City of London. 12 13 14 15 16 Burgh and Tuttington, Norfolk. Burgh with Tuttingham, Norfolk. Saham Toney, Norfolk. Coddington area, Nottinghamshire. possibly Ipswich, Suffolk. 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Lidgate, Suffolk. Tunstall, Suffolk. Warwickshire. Great Bedwin, Wiltshire. possibly Swindon, Wiltshire. Marr, Doncaster, South Yorkshire. Tickhill, Yorkshire. ‘A DMV site in Northamptonshire’. Dryslwyn, Carmarthenshire. Soutra, Midlothian. Millsteads Farm, Canonbie, Dumfries and Galloway. Kirk Close, Perth, Perthshire. Unprovenanced, presumably UK. 28 29 Reference Anon 1850: 302. Anon 1861: 163. LIN-7778D6 LIN-772E80 LIN-1EC113 LIN-871975; Geake 2005: 336, fig. 5b. LIN-6DD211. LIN-9CB1B8; Daubney 2005: 336, fig. 5a. NLM2851. For sale on internet. Museum of London archive: TEX88 acc. no. <7286> NMS-AE5497. Norfolk HER: No. 33592. Norfolk HER: 34101. LIN-9570B5. Anonymous, The Searcher Magazine, November 2002, 18. Anon 1849: 181; Evans 1881: 271. SF3643. BERK-7DF537. Anon 1849: 411; Evans 1881: 271. For sale on internet 2006. SWYOR-F30727. LIN-1A5260. For sale on internet 2006. Jessop, forthcoming. Treasure: 2005/11 Dumfries Museum accession number: DUMFM:1969.18 (Caldwell 1981: 306-7). Holdsworth 1987: 44-45. ESS-897423. Wickham Bishops Area, Essex (SUSS-3C8EA4); Isle of Axholme area, North Lincolnshire (NLM2712); Catton Hall, Staffordshire (PAS: BUC-5F9404); Shenstone, Staffordshire (WMID-20EEE6); Finningham area, Suffolk (SF-E1DB04); Great Barton area, Suffolk (SFA69D93); Fillongley, Warwickshire (WAW-8E2FA3). Endnotes {1} X-ray fluorescence analysis of the Millsteads Farm, Canonbie mace-head showed the occurrence of copper, lead and tin (Holdsworth 1987, 125). The heavy mass of many of the other maces seen by the author also suggests the addition of lead, although none has been scientifically analysed at the time of writing. No. 11 weighs 521g. {2} Sharnbrook area, Bedfordshire (BH-B64636); Billington area, Buckinghamshire (BUC-69D596); Tarrant Hinton area, Dorset (SOMDOR-AF3CC7); Acknowledgements I am extremely grateful to the Finds Liaison Officers involved in recording mace-heads, and to Helen Geake 199 Adam Daubney _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Geake, H. 2005, ‘Medieval Britain and Ireland, 2004: Portable Antiquities Scheme’, Medieval Archaeology 49, 334-37. Halpin, A. 1988, ‘Irish Medieval Bronze Maceheads’, in MacNiocaill, G. and Wallace, P. F. (eds.), Keimelia. Studies in medieval archaeology and history in memory of Tom Delaney (Galway University Press, Galway), 168-92. Holdsworth, P. 1987, Excavations in the Medieval Burgh of Perth 1979-1981. Society of Antiquaries of Scotland Monograph 5 (Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, Edinburgh). Jessop, O. 2007, ‘Weapons’, in Caple, C. (ed.), Dryslwyn Castle Excavations 1980-1995. Society for Medieval Archaeology Monographs 26 (Manley Publishing, Leeds). Kirpichnikov, A. N. 1966. ‘Drevnerusskoe oruzhie. Vyp. II: Kopia, sulitsy, boevyetopory, bulavy, kisteni, IXXIII vv’, Arkheologiia SSSR. Svod Arkheologicheskikh Istochnikov (Nauka, Leningrad). Lagerlöf, E. 1999. Gotland och Bysans. Bysantinskt inflytande på den Gotländska kyrkokonsten under medeltiden (Ödins Förlag, Visby). Oman, C. 1962, ‘English medieval base metal church plate’, Archaeological Journal 119, 195-207. Rundkvist, M. 2003, Barshalder 2, Studies of Late Iron Age Gotland (University of Stockholm, Stockholm). Staecker, J. 1997, ‘Searching for the unknown: Gotland’s churchyards from a gender and missionary perspective’, Lund Archaeological Review 1, 77-81. Ward Perkins, J. B. 1940, London Museum Medieval Catalogue (HMSO, London). (PAS), Andy Halpin (National Museum of Ireland) and Jenny Shiels (National Museums of Scotland) for their assistance and encouragement. Thanks also to Geoff Egan (PAS) for alerting me to the TEX88 mace-head and for sharing his thoughts and comments regarding these finds with me, to Anne Pedersen (National Museum of Denmark) for her help with the maces in the Danish and Finnish National Museums, and to Shawn Caza (independent researcher) for bringing the Kirpichnikov article to my attention. Much gratitude is expressed to the finders who reported their mace-heads. Bibliography Anon. 1849, ‘Proceedings at meetings of the Archaeological Institute’, Archaeological Journal 6, 175-200 and 395-416. Anon. 1850, ‘Proceedings at meetings of the Archaeological Institute,’ Archaeological Journal 7, 295-302. Anon. 1861, ‘Proceedings at meetings of the Archaeological Institute,’ Archaeological Journal 18, 147-92. Anon. 2002, ‘The identification and valuation desk’, The Searcher (November) 207, 18. Bailey, S. 1994, ‘Two copper-alloy cross-staff heads from Warwickshire,’ Medieval Archaeology 38, 17175. Caldwell, D. H. 1981, Scottish Weapons and Fortifications 1100-1800 (John Donald Publishers Ltd., Edinburgh). Evans, J. 1881, The Ancient Bronze Implements. Weapons and ornaments of Great Britain and Ireland (Longman, Green and Co., London). 200